1918 • CWR Nevinson - One of the more progressive designs of the British WWI propaganda campaigns, this poster displays strong Vorticist elements in it typography and diagonal bayonets against the sky (3). The original design was a self-promotional poster made by the artist and later commandeered by war poster artists for propaganda purposes.

The poster holds an unassuming yet highly impactful place in the history of art and design. Created as public display ephemera for a variety of purposes – from product advertising to political campaigning – posters have long provided an economical and visually powerful mode of public communication.

Although poster design was already somewhat recognized within the art world of the early 1900s, its importance as a political tool was established by the ubiquitous government-sponsored poster art of the two World Wars. These posters, both in America and abroad, served a unique and challenging purpose, to “make coherent and acceptable a basically incoherent and irrational ordeal of killing, suffering and destruction that violates every accepted principle of morality and decent living” (1). To do this successfully required refined artistic skill and ingenuity from a broad range of artists.

War posters of all countries and eras are remarkably similar in their foundations, both ideological and iconographical. These posters invariably seek to: improve national morale; urge citizens to enlist or provide financial support for the war; encourage frugality and productivity among the populace at home; promote conservation of resources to provide material support to the war; and discourage the enemy whenever possible (1).

Specific visual devices used to accomplish these goals during and immediately following WWI included: images and/or quotations from beloved national leaders; utilization of culture-specific emotive symbols; memorable slogans; reference to cultural myths and metaphors; semiotic illustration; and dehumanization of the enemy (1). Although the underlying principles were essentially the same, specific styles and aesthetics varied greatly from country to country.

The War to End All Wars

When WWI broke out in Europe in August 1914, the involved powers all expected a brief conflict, a decisive victory, and that the war would “be over by Christmas” (2). Instead, a stalemate ensued, followed by four years of horrific carnage in the nearly immobile trenches at the front lines. To sustain and supply such a prolonged war effort, governments enlisted the efforts of illustrators and artists to create posters that could communicate efficiently to a worried and sometimes skeptical public. At this point, the word “propaganda” actually had a positive implication of public information, as opposed to the negative association with falsehood and deception that arose with the Nazis in WWII (2). The posters produced in the propaganda effort during WWI set a benchmark for the evolving advertising industry; first, it provided a memorable example of the organizing power of advertising, and secondly it set the standard of psychological advertising, using powerful subconscious emotive imagery to compel people to action (3). The propaganda posters of WWI, as well as some of the posters created in fragile new countries immediately following the war, are both beautiful and impactful, forever leaving their mark on the world of art and design.

Propaganda in Europe and the British Empire

1919 • Heinz Fuchs - This striking design features a unique incorporation of “popular horror-show imagery into an Expressionist and Futurist space” as well as a return to Latin typography (4). This aesthetic would have been considered quite cutting-edge for its time, with the use of strong diagonal composition and violent colors. Translated, the text reads, “Workers. Famine. Death Is Approaching. Strike Destroys. Work Nourishes. Do Your Duty. Work.” (9). This poster was designed to encourage productivity among the workers of the fragile new German republic after the war, and to warn them of the dangers of striking.

European WWI posters generally reflected the international art movements of the time. Art Nouveau lingered in many designs, but had been abandoned by most artists in favor of post-impressionism and, less commonly, the more experimental styles of cubism and futurism (3).

In France, however, commercial design had little impact on war poster design. French poster artists were mid-career, classically trained painters, using high art conventions and illustration styles derived from eighteenth-century classicism and nineteenth-century realism (4). As a result, the aesthetic of French posters did not generally reflect the progressive avant-garde, and instead relied on the visual conventions of classical painting. French typography of the time, though not exceptional, was skillful and professional, and most poster designs displayed mastery of lithographic technique (3).

German poster design probably displayed the most progressive artistic elements of all European WWI posters, both in terms of imagery and typography. The provisional socialist government of Germany decided that its people would be most persuaded by avant-garde design, and many German posters utilized expressionist and futurist visuals (4), as illustrated right. Furthermore, German and Austrio-Hungarian design displayed the most distinguished typography among WWI posters, presumably because several of their prominent poster designers were also accomplished typographers (3).

It is also worth noting that while America, France, and Great Britain commonly used dehumanizing, violent imagery to incite anger and hatred against the enemy, Austria-Hungary and Germany generally refrained from such tactics during WWI (3).

In the British Empire, the WWI propaganda campaign started under the auspices of the Parliamentary Recruiting Committee and initially struck an advertorial tone, drawing upon fine art style and utilizing optimistic nationalist imagery to appeal to the moral virtues of potential recruits; one of the most powerful calls for men to enlist involved a sense of fighting a “just war” against an immoral opponent (4).

Unknown • 1915 - This poster, titled “Step Into Your Place,” demonstrated the directness - and evasiveness - of the British recruitment campaign. The line of men transitions from a variety of civilian positions in the foreground, into a seamless line of uniformed military in the background. The design carefully avoids portraying military life as gruesome or violent, and instead depicts an orderly procession. At the same time, the design directly addresses the viewer, leaving visual space for him to insert himself into the scene, and similarly into the military ranks.

Unlike WWII, involvement in which presented a clear moral imperative for the Allied powers, the complex national motivations for military action in WWI were more ambiguous. Thus a need arose for a rousing, albeit largely unsuccessful, recruiting effort in Britain.

Although lacking any discernible overarching strategy, the British recruitment posters did employ similar persuasive elements throughout the campaign, including: an absence of graphic violence (with a couple notable exceptions of posters in British colonies overseas); portrayal of military life as exciting, fulfilling and secure; utilizing open visual space for the viewer to insert himself into the scene, as pictured left; and the use of shame or flattery (4).

Other WWI posters in Britain, like in most of the warring countries, urged citizens to support the war effort at home through frugality, productivity, and investment in war savings certificates. To generalize, British WWI posters used direct, immediate, and impactful designs. Although a handful of artists distinguished themselves with the use of modern art technique, as pictured left, most British posters struck an advertorial tone, utilizing a naturalistic style coupled with the visual rhetoric of exaggeration and simplification (4).Typography was generally poor, as type choices were often left to the printers, and designers’ choices were regularly overruled (3).

Propaganda in the Soviet Union

1919 •El Lissitzky - This piece is titled “Beat Back the Whites with the Red Wedge,” and is probably the most famous single design by Lissitzky. Lissitzky’s involvement with revolutionary art was instigated by his association with Kazimir Malevich, who is credited with creating the geometric visual system of Suprematism. Lissitzky was immediately concerned with adapting the visual language of Suprematism to fit political purposes. In this particular piece, Lissitzky utilized a geometric motif of a red triangle (representing the Bolsheviks) cutting into a white circle (representing the Confederation of Counter-Revolutionary Forces) to make a Suprematist propaganda poster for the Revolutionary War effort (6). Lissitzky and Suprematism had a profound effect on the development of Constructivism, and subsequently the Bauhaus and de Stijl movements.

Russia entered the war in 1914 in response to Austria-Hungary’s declaration of war on Serbia after the assassination in Sarajevo of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. Most of the propaganda developed by the Russian government in support of WWI was traditional and utilized fine art conventions.

However, Russia failed to remain involved in WWI until its conclusion, due primarily to internal unrest. As the Tsar remained at the front, Empress Alexandra’s incompetent governance led to growing protests in Russian cities.

In March 1917, demonstrations in Petrograd culminated a political coup by the Bolsheviks and the creation of a provisional government which shared power with the Soviet socialists. This created confusion and chaos in Russia and on the war front. The military’s effectiveness suffered as a result, and Russia’s involvement in WWI became increasingly unpopular among the citizenry. In 1918, Russia withdrew from WWI by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

These political and social developments were significant to the art and design world because the most notable Russian design of the WWI era was created not in support of WWI itself, but in response to the Russian Revolution and internal unrest. The image shown above demonstrates the beginnings of Russian Constructivism, which combined the formal principles of Suprematism with a proactive orientation toward production (5). The resulting aesthetic, visually emphasizing strong diagonal composition, flat color planes, and geometric design elements, later influenced German De Stijl and Bauhaus designs. A result of the movement’s revolutionary beginnings, Constructivism embodied a strong belief in design as a force of social change, and designs often blurred the line between fine art and applied art (5).

Propaganda in the United States

1915 • Fred Spears - This poster was created after the sinking of the Lusitania by a German U-boat attack, which was one of the primary reasons behind America’s involvement in WWI. Spear’s poster design recalls the drowning of a mother and child during this incident, and without the recent memory of such occasion combined with the word ‘Enlist,’ this dreamlike painting of two submersed human figures would arouse no strong emotional response (3).

The United States was a latecomer to the Great War in 1917. Public support for involvement in a complex foreign war was fragile at best, and America remained neutral for the first three years of war. Americans watched with a mixture of shock and bittersweet satisfaction as the autocratic imperial powers of Europe set upon each other with brutal force in the trenches and open seas (7). Germany’s decision to use unrestricted submarine warfare, as well as the sinking of the British ship the Lusitania which killed 128 Americans, played a major role in Woodrow Wilson’s decision to enter the war, and a propaganda campaign ensued to prepare the army – and the nation – for war.

American art up until that point had remained largely uninfluenced by the European avant-garde movements, and instead adhered largely to a painterly, naturalistic aesthetic as pictured left (7). In fact, the sentiment toward progressive European movements such as Dada, Cubism, and Futurism was decidedly negative; Theodore Roosevelt referred to modernist artists as “the lunatic fringe,” and an art critic for the New York Herald wrote, “The United States is invaded by aliens, thousands of whom constitute so many perils to the health of the body politic. Modernism is of precisely the same heterogeneous alien origin and is imperiling the republic of art in the same way” (7).

With the exception of a few posters that hinted at Art Nouveau, most American WWI posters were illustrative and relied on traditional painting as a visual model (7). Images of heroism and bravery were coupled with hand-drawn lettering in a humanist mode, and portrayed the war as a battle between democracy and the forces of destruction (5).

1917 • James Montgomery Flagg - This poster is the best-known American poster of all time, and was designed by Flagg as a self-portrait of himself as the iconic Uncle Sam. The idea was taken from a British recruitment poster by Alfred Lee, which depicts Lord Kitchener urging Britons to enlist (pictured left). It is estimated that over five million copies of the American version have been printed since its creation, and the image is repurposed and given new symbolic meaning over time (3). The poster takes a direct approach to the viewer, imploring him to enlist in the military with a pointing finger and strong typographical features.

Like in Europe, American propaganda served several purposes in WWI: to urge men to enlist, to encourage frugality and the preservation of resources for the war, and to convince viewers to purchase war bonds.

Probably the most famous American poster design of all time, pictured above, was a recruitment poster based on a previous British design. Its creator, James Montgomery Flagg, later recounted his participation in the propaganda campaign with some melancholy, stating, “A number of us who were too old or too scared to fight prostituted our talents by making posters inciting a large mob of young men who had never done anything to us to hop over and get shot at… We sold the war to youth” (8).

Works Cited

1914 • Alfred Lee

1. Crawford,  Anthony R. ed. Posters of World War I and World War II in the George C. Marshall Research Foundation. Charlottesville: The University Press of Virginia, 1979. Print.
2. Manion, Mary. “World War I poster art rooted in propaganda.” Antique Trader Weekly 16 June 2010: 11+. General OneFile. Web. 6 Nov. 2011.
3. Darracott, Joseph. ed. The First World War in Posters. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1974. Print.
4. Aulich, Jim and John Hewitt. Seduction or Instruction? First World War Posters in Britain and Europe. Manchester, U.K.: Manchester University Press, 2007. Print.
5. Drucker, Johanna and Emily McVarish. Graphic Design History: A Critical Guide. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc., 2008. Print.
6. Oxford University Press. “El Lissitzky.” MoMA Collection: Art Terms. Museum of Modern Art.  Web. 11 November, 2011.
7. Rawls, Walton. Wake Up, America! World War I and the American Poster. New York: Abbeville Press, 1988. Print.
8. Tungate, Mark. Adland: a Global History of Advertising. London/Philadelphia: Kogan Page Limited, 2007. Print.
9. Museum of Modern Art. “Heinz Fuchs.” MoMA Collection: German Expressionism. Web. 11 November, 2011.

1934 • Richard Floethe - Floethe’s designs strongly reflect his Bauhaus training in such elements as the Stencil typeface shown here, as well as the geometric abstraction and simplification of form. This poster also clearly displays a surrealist influence, and is indicative of Floethe’s willingness to explore creative styles and colors. (2)

These posters were in many ways unlikely candidates for noteworthy design. Created primarily to provide work for unemployed artists, many feared government sponsorship of art would stifle creativity. Furthermore, American design lacked a unified style at the time, instead borrowing aesthetics from European movements.

However, what emerged from the WPA poster division was both creative and innovative, producing a body of poster art described at the time as “more vital than any this country has ever known.” (2,9)

The Federal Art Project + the Poster Division

The WPA was the largest agency in Roosevelt’s New Deal, and it put unemployed artists to work through the Federal Art Project (FAP). As described by WPA official Bruce McClure in a 1935 New York Times article, the primary goal of the FAP was to “provide useful work at their usual occupations for the thousands of writers, artists, musicians and actors throughout the country who have been forced to accept public relief and whose creative gifts have suffered from unemployment.” (8)

But the creation of the FAP also arose from a democratic philosophy that the spiritual and aesthetic pleasures of art should be made available not only to the privileged elite, but to the masses. McClure expounded upon this goal in his article, writing that the FAP would serve also to “provide encouragement to the free growth of artistic expression and… make the finest products of our native artistic genius available to every one.” (2, 8 )

Furthermore, McClure wrote that the FAP projects were “planned in the belief that the artist’s contribution to a ‘full and abundant life’ for the American people is both vital and significant and that a discriminating and sympathetic public is necessary to the development of a national art.” Clearly, the motivation behind the FAP extended beyond mere employment to a deeply held philosophy about the role of art in American society. (8)

In 1935, the poster division of the FAP was born in New York City, which was widely regarded as the artistic center of the United States. The division was at first a small operation comprised of painters who painstakingly recreated posters by hand, and its scope was limited by the small output possible through such means. However, the application of commercial silkscreening processes to poster production, called serigraphy (see sidebar), allowed the division to grow rapidly. By 1938, poster division branches had been established in eighteen states. (2, 6)

The services of FAP poster artists were made available to any government agency requiring public display art. Posters were recognized not only as a powerful means of communication between government and citizenry, but also as a means of visually enriching the public sphere. Between 1935 and 1942, the agency’s poster division produced approximately two million printed posters based on over thirty-five thousand designs. The poster division was charged with producing posters to promote a wide range of programs, activities, and behaviors that the Roosevelt administration believed were important, including but not limited to: community involvement, education, health and hygiene, a strong work ethic, cultural experiences, art exhibits, sports, domestic travel, and conservation of natural resources. (2, 4, 6)

Many of the designs were both aesthetically powerful and formally innovative. Concerns that government oversight would stifle creativity quickly dissolved as artists explored new territory and produced groundbreaking designs. Freed from the constraints of a sales-driven commercial structure, artists experienced an unprecedented creative freedom within the poster divisions to experiment with typography, colors, visual styles and techniques. This freedom was due in part to the experimental and progressive nature of the New Deal government itself, and in part also to the leadership of encouraging FAP administrators. (2, 6, 9)

Richard Floethe, an administrator for the New York poster division beginning in 1936, was especially instrumental in fostering an atmosphere of adventurous creative experimentation and collaboration among poster artists. A graduate of the Bauhaus, Floethe brought many of its visual innovations to the FAP poster division, and as a result, the poster artists were in many ways at the forefront of incorporating various progressive international design strategies. (2, 6)

The poster division artists utilized concepts from European modernism and combined them with the two major trends in American art at the time; social consciousness and “American Scene” regionalism and agrarianism. Their artwork exhibited elements of surrealism, naturalism, cubism, collage, and elements from other modern art movements. (9)

Charles Verschuuren • 1939 - This poster, and many others like it, visualized the taboo subject of venereal disease without blanching at the word “syphilis.” This is indicative of the underlying theme of responsibility both of the WPA and the poster division. This poster also displays a streamlined Art Deco aesthetic. (2, 5)

Steven Heller wrote of the posters’ impact on American design styles, “America never had a truly national design style… but the W.P.A. posters came close to imposing an aesthetic — an amalgam of modernistic, classical and even frontier typefaces and flat, sometimes abstract but mostly representational artwork.” (5)

Author and professor Stephen Duncombe claimed the posters obtained their own aesthetic when he wrote,  “…also evident is the development of a unique American poster aesthetic, the bold strokes of modernist design softened with an almost nostalgic depiction of the people and places of the United States.” (4)

The See America Campaign

One of the distinctive campaigns produced by the FAP poster division was the “See America” campaign. During a time when most Americans could not afford to travel abroad and much of Europe and Asia were embroiled in war, The U.S. Travel Bureau enlisted the help of FAP poster division artists to encourage domestic tourism.

Through their choices of imagery, color, composition, and type, the poster artists revealed a deep appreciation for the diverse American landscape. Furthermore, the posters encapsulated a strong theme underlying many of the FAP posters: the display of landscapes of grandiose proportions and immense physical challenge reaffirms America as a land of personal opportunity. More than that, the posters urged Americans to rediscover the landscape as a catalyst for much-needed spiritual rebirth in a time of economic crisis. (2)

These posters also held social and racial significance, reflecting a democratic optimism and nostalgia for a perceived authenticity in history that was rooted in Native American and African American tradition. Cory Pillen wrote that the See America posters “equated tourism with a knowledge of the nation that extends beyond the topography of the land.” (10)

Alexander Dux • 1939 - In this poster the scene appears to extend beyond the edges of the poster, accentuating grandeur of the landscape. The figures appear small in relation to the natural elements, which is enhanced with the contrasting shades of blue. This positioning underscores the theme of Americans’ pioneering spirit and history. Like many of the posters in this series, the abbreviated elements in this artwork are easily bridged with rich colors, alluding to a naturalistic style. (2, 10)

Illustrating historical sites, popular cultural attractions, and natural landmarks, the series links national identity with a shared history as well as geography. In promoting destinations that represented the nation’s past and present, the collection exemplifies the depression era search for a usable past that could ameliorate social tensions and unite Americans by recovering and affirming national values.” Pillen explained further that many Americans “sought an alternative to the fragmentation and seemingly inauthentic experience of modern industrial life,” and strove to fulfill this longing by embracing what they viewed as a more authentic and primitive past. The “See America” posters tapped into this desire with imagery of teepees in Montana and other culturally suggestive icons. (10)

The Fate of the WPA Posters

By the end of the 1930s, many WPA projects had lost their funding, and their scope was greatly diminished. The FAP poster division remained alive only because it had been granted city sponsorship in New York under Mayor LaGuardia. In 1942, as the U.S. entered WWII, the FAP was transferred to the Department of Defense and became the Graphics Section of the War Services Division. The federal artists who remained produced some posters for the department, but their responsibilities expanded to include the creation of mess hall menus, window displays, camp insignia and other war-related materials. The aesthetic became rougher, and the products less well-designed. (2)

The WPA/FAP posters were, by nature, ephemeral. They were created to be displayed, consumed by the public, and subsequently torn down. And so they were. Out of the thirty-five thousand original designs, only about 2,000 have been preserved. You can view them at the Library of Congress website.

Perhaps these designs were discarded because of the lowly status of WPA art in general, or because of the belief that posters and other ephemera could not be classified among the ranks of art worth preserving. Whatever the reason for their relative obscurity, it is clear that these posters represent an important part of our national art heritage and are worthy of independent examination and appreciation. The posters demonstrated excellent design and craftsmanship, and facilitated important technical innovations. They were the product of talented and skilled artists working in a uniquely progressive and collaborative environment, providing occupation for influential artists who struggled in the Depression era. These posters not only provided a public service in raising awareness about social issues, but broadened public understanding of modern art principles and aesthetic. (2, 6)

Works Cited

1. Carter, Ennis. Posters for the People: Art of the WPA. Philadelphia: Quirk, 2008. Print.

2. DeNoon, Christopher. Posters of the WPA. Los Angeles: The Wheatley Press, 1987. Print.

3. Drucker, Johanna and Emily McVarish. Graphic Design History: A Critical Guide. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc., 2008. Print.

4. Duncombe, Stephen. “Posters for the People: Art of the WPA.” Afterimage Jan.-Feb. 2009: 42. General Reference Center GOLD. Web. 22 Oct. 2011.

5. Heller, Steven. “Visuals: Other Worlds.” The New York Times Book Review 7 Dec. 2008: 34(L). General OneFile. Web. 22 Oct. 2011.

6. Heyman, Therese Thau. Posters American Style. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1998. Print.

7. Library of Congress. “By the People, For the People: Posters of WPA.” Prints and Photographs Division website. Web. 18 Oct 2011.

8. McClure, Bruce. “FEDERAL RELIEF AIDS IN SERVICE OF ARTS.” New York Times (1923-Current file) Sep. 15, 1935. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 20 Oct. 2011.

9. McElvaine, Robert S. “Posters of the WPA.” Washington Monthly May 1988: 55+. InfoTrac Tourism, Hospitality & Leisure. Web. 19 Oct. 2011.

10. Pillen, Cory. “See America: WPA Posters and the Mapping of a New Deal Democracy.” Journal of American Culture 31.1 (2008): 49-65. Literary Reference Center. EBSCO. Web. 22 Oct. 2011.

When Steven Heller asked philosopher Edward Tenner what he considered the most significant graphic design of the past century, Tenner responded, “For lasting and positive influence, I doubt anything beats the London Transport’s ensemble of structures, signs, posters, publications, and maps… It reflected an ideal of ultrarational, benignly hegemonic public authority… The basics of the design have remained, but the system has not kept up, even if its great heritage has been largely preserved” (1).

Underground Map • 1933 - This is Beck’s first diagrammatic map widely distributed by London Underground in 1933. The simple geometric design is reflective of a modernist aesthetic, and constrains the lines to 45- and 90-degree angles. Even the River Thames has been abstractly rendered as to avoid unnecessary visual clutter. This revolutionary design restructured our visual understanding of physical space and distance, and freed cartographic design from the confines of geographic accuracy.

The Tube Map

Perhaps the most iconic and famous single design piece from the London Underground collection is the map design produced by Henry C. Beck in 1931, and published in 1933. This map, which helped to shape information design for decades to come, has been called “a breakthrough,” “revolutionary” and even “the prototype of the modern map” (2).

As the London railway system grew in the 1920s, the geographically accurate maps of the time became more and more cluttered with stops and lines, confusing passengers in a subterranean system devoid of surface landmarks. Beck, who was an electrical draftsman for the Underground, envisioned a diagrammatic map of the complex maze of rail lines similar to an electrical chart. To accomplish this, he would need to dispose of a certain level of geographic accuracy. In other words, Beck “traded geographical verisimilitude for topographical simplicity and followed a rigid formula: lines ran only vertically, horizontally, or on 45-degree angles” (3). Additionally, Beck represented the stations at an equal distance from one another on the map, irrespective of the actual geographic distances.

More importantly, Beck’s map introduced a new way of visually interpreting and expressing space, reorganizing geography to conform to visual priorities instead of to literal topography (2). The simplicity of this reorganization provided an unprecedented level of clarity and logic for public consumption because it reflected a cultural and technological reality which rendered previous notions of time and space anachronistic. This clarity was not dependent on an innate understanding of graphic design, nor on the ability of readers to visualize accurate geography; it relied instead on a shared understanding of modernity, urbanity and visual hierarchies. The map codified and standardized a system of connections and points in space, without regard to the temporal relationships between them. The geometric design served to “overlay everyday life with modernism’s concept of space and time as malleable and serviceable” (2).

This approach was indeed revolutionary. In fact, it was so radical that the London Underground rejected Beck’s initial design, claiming it would be confusing and incomprehensible to the public. When he resubmitted the design more than a year later, the Underground agreed to a trial printing, which they distributed to the public to elicit feedback. To their surprise, the diagrammatic map was an overwhelming success (2). The map was printed and universally distributed in 1933.

The original map is widely viewed as a seminal work in both cartography and graphic design (2). Perhaps indeed the prototype of the modern map, Beck’s design influence can be seen in transport systems across the globe. “All subway maps since, from Cologne to Tokyo to Washington, D.C., have owed a debt to Beck’s design” (3).

Henry Beck’s Legacy - The above modern transit maps (left to right: Paris, Madrid) illustrate the enduring impact of Beck’s original London Underground map design. All of these maps, though they bear little to no resemblance to the surface geography or landmarks of the cities, are easy to comprehend because they employ the same basic geometry and interpretation of space that Henry Beck utilized.

Johnston Typeface

In 1916, London Underground’s managing director, Frank Pick, commissioned calligrapher Edward Johnston to design a typeface for the transport company as part of an effort to strengthen the Underground’s corporate identity. Over the next two years, Johnston worked to develop a typeface that embodied Pick’s demands for “the grandeur and simplicity of classical forms – easy to read, individual, and eloquent in spirit” (4).

The resulting alphabet design, pictured right, was both elegant and innovative. Incorporating a perfect circle as its basis, the Johnston Underground (and later New Johnston) typeface “became known as the first humanistic sans-serif, in direct contrast to the ubiquitous, over-weight, heavyhanded, tortured-looking Victorian grotesque sans” (5).

Edward Johnston’s calligraphic influence can been seen in many of the lowercase letters, such as the curved tail on the “l” and the diamond-shaped dots on the “i” and “j” characters. Pick was pleased, and the typeface became the official type of the London Underground. It was incorporated into the roundel logo, and by the mid-1930s helped make the Underground’s corporate identity world-famous (5).

Johnston had durable influence, forever changing the evolution of 20th Century type design (4). Most notably, Eric Gill created the now-ubiquitous Gill Sans based on the Johnston typeface in the late 1920s (6). The typeface provided the basis for the humanist family of sans-serif fonts, elegant in their simplicity. Even today, the original Johnston typeface “still strikes an efficient modern note amidst the dirt and gloom” (7) of the typographic landscape.

The Art of Transportation • 1908 – 1940

The third groundbreaking element of the London Underground’s graphics campaign was a series of posters to advertise the public transport system and convey messages to its ridership. But beyond the surface-level messages was a deeper mission of art democratization, or “art for the people” (4). American designer J. J. Sedelmaier wrote of the posters, “I can’t think of a more substantial and influential collection of posters designed under one company’s umbrella than the posters of the London Underground” (8).

Poster • 1928 - This poster was designed by Clive Gardiner, and clearly reflects Post-Impressionist style, as well as Cubist influences. Poster designs such as this were very controversial.

To understand how these posters came to exist, we must first understand something of the patron who commissioned them. Frank Pick became the publicity director for the Underground Group in 1908. He spent the next few decades tirelessly working to renovate the corporation’s identity and by 1933 he was the first CEO of the consolidated London Transport (9).  Pick’s commitment to high standards of visual design in corporate graphics, and what he called “fitness for purpose” in the applied arts, became embedded in the corporate ideology of London Transport (9). He believed firmly in aesthetic cohesion, which eventually extended beyond print graphics to station architecture, lighting, and systems design for London Transport (4).

Pick began commissioning poster art in 1908 from both established and new artists. At the time, the existing legacy of poster design was largely Edwardian; type-dominant layout often designed by printers (4). But Pick saw the potential for Underground posters to transcend mere utility.

The early posters reflected the Arts and Crafts movement, and caused little controversy. However, by the mid-1910s, the posters began to push the boundaries of traditional art, with flat color images of nature that were considered radical and thoroughly unnatural (4). During the years of WWI, a series of bold posters served both as war recruitment advertisements and PR for London Transport. After the war, Pick’s choices in artists and style for the posters became bolder and more radical; enough so that the following letter was written to the London Mercury in 1921:

“Sirs:

Impossible ducks, futurist trees, vermillion grass and such like absurdities may appeal to what, as I have no wish to be offensive, I will call the higher thought. But believe me, sir, those people who live their lives in the ordinary conventional way need nothing more subtle in a poster than a straightforward appeal to their sense of pleasure and duty.

Yours sincerely . . .” (4)

Poster • 1930 - This poster was designed by Edward McKnight Kauffer, who would become one of the Underground’s most famous and prolific poster designers. The bold geometric design and mechanical elements reveal a modernist or avante-garde approach typical of Kauffer’s work.

This controversy only seemed to spur Frank Pick to continue his radical commissions, and during the 1920s-1930s the Underground’s posters reached a zenith of stylistic quality, with over 40 posters produced every year (10). In the 1930s, as the Nazis came to power in Europe, many avante-garde artists fled to Britain and were subsequently commissioned by Pick to design posters demonstrating strong elements of Futurism, Cubism, Constructivism and Vorticism (4). While Pick’s philosophy regarding poster art was that it could “move from the most literal representation to the wildest impression so long as the subject remained clear” (10), it should be noted that Pick also commissioned traditional landscape artists to depict peaceful country scenes to attract leisure ridership (4). While he knew these traditional posters could reassure the public, he also realized that through poster design their tastes could broaden beyond the traditional into the realm of the adventurous and even shocking (10).

Poster • 1934 - This poster was designed by Vladimir Polunin, and compares the patron saint of travelers with London Transport. The combination of formal dynamic elements and cubist forms embodies what became known as “cubo-futurism,” and was considered cutting-edge for 1920s and 1930s poster design.

These posters were significant in many ways. First, Frank Pick himself was extraordinary as a corporate patron of the arts, and in his commitment to progressive design. Second, the wider perception of poster art was transformed from being viewed as an economical means of advertisement, to an art form worthy of review in and of itself (9). Although Pick maintained the primary purpose of the posters was one of public relations and advertisement, he also realized that “every passenger is a potential critic; many passengers are dynamic ones” (9).

Works cited:

(1) Heller, Steven. “Edward Tenner, philosopher of everyday things.” Print 58.1 (2004): 38-120. Business Source Premier. EBSCO. Web. 17 Sept. 2011.

(2) Hadlaw, Janin. “The London Underground Map: Imagining Modern Time and Space.” Design Issues 19.1 (2003): 25-35. Art Full Text. Web. 16 Sep. 2011.

(3) “The London Underground Map.” Print 65.4 (2011): 108. Education Research Complete. EBSCO. Web. 16 Sept. 2011.

(4) Rosoff, Margaret. “’Art for the people’.” Print May-June 1997: 78+. InfoTrac Vocation, Careers & Technical Education. Web. 17 Sep. 2011.

(5) Kono, Eiichi. “New Johnston.” Pen to Printer. Pages 36-42. Web. 17 Sept. 2011.

(6) The Eric Gill Society. “Eric Gill Biography.” The Eric Gill Society, n.d. Web. 17 Sept. 2011. <http://www.ericgill.org.uk/Gill/>

(7) Harrod, Tanya. “ TYPOGRAPHY / The writing on the wall: Tanya Harrod looks at the importance of lettering, in the light of a new exhibition at Portsmouth.” The Independent (October 10, 1989). LexisNexis Academic. Web. 17 Sept. 2011.

(8) Heller, Steven ed. I Heart Design. Minneapolis, MN: Rockport Publishers, 2011. Print.

(9) Green, Oliver. “LONDON ILLUSTRATED: ART OF THE UNDERGROUND.” The Independent (December 7, 2003).
LexisNexis Academic. Web. 17 Sept. 2011.

(10) London Transport Museum. “The Golden Age of Poster Design.” 2010. Transport for London. 18 Sep. 2011.
<http://www.ltmcollection.org/posters/about/behindthecollection.html?IXstory=The+golden+age+of+poster+design>

That being said, I recognize that a big part of my job as a commercial graphic designer is to fuel the consumer economy. I design ads to sell client products and services. I design magazines and newspapers and websites that exist because of advertising revenue. I design logos and brandmarks that help to establish a brand identity for companies that sell products and services. My clients love me for it. My bank account exists because of it. This is all a good thing, right?

As part of my ongoing education as an artist and designer, I am currently taking a “History of Graphic Design” class at the university. I’m really enjoying gaining a deeper understanding of my profession and its deep social, political and artistic roots. Yesterday we watched the video below, which I had seen before (it was made a while ago) but enjoyed watching again. It’s worth watching and thinking about if you haven’t seen it:

Some of this information I was well aware of, but like most consumers I am able to conveniently ignore it in my everyday life. But what’s more pertinent is that I hadn’t really considered my role in this system as a designer.

Graphic design has a long and proud history of affecting social change, and its artistic intent has often been to be a vehicle for radical progress. Artists like John Heartfield are prime examples of this tradition. But there is a more mundane, more practical side to design within which most of us make our living. Instead of affecting change, we reinforce the status quo. We might produce clever, beautiful, informed designs, but ultimately our commercial work fuels consumerism.

I’ve decided I have no problem with this on the level at which I am involved. My clients are all small- to medium-sized, local companies and institutions. They are not contributing to the McWorld syndrome, nor are they exploiting women in maquiladoras. So I guess my work exists somewhere in the grey zone.

I can say, however, that I would not feel good about being a designer for Nike or McDonald’s or Wal-Mart or any other multinational featured in the film, even if the offered salary was astronomical.

How about you? What do you think about the film, about advertising, and about our role in the system as designers?

The site, fully constructed using Joomla and custom coding, provides a wide array of functionality essential to a publication website. Readers can access article content, download PDF versions of the publications, contact the publisher, view a local events calendar, and much more. Very excited to have this site up and running!

www.UpCloseAZ.com

Maybe.

Newspapers have taken the biggest hit, by far. The problem, according to NPR’s recent story, “Chronicling the Death of American Newspapers“, is this:

“Swiftly moving competition from emerging Web sites has hastened the downfall of newspapers. As more people turn to the Internet for news — even, ironically, to the newspapers’ own Web sites — fewer subscribe to news printed on paper. As circulation dwindles, so does advertising revenue. And without the same amount of advertising revenue, newspapers can no longer afford large, comprehensive, news-gathering operations. So the newspaper shrinks, attracting fewer readers, leading to a decline in advertising revenue, and the death spiral continues.

Newspapers have tried, with varying degrees of success, to migrate to the Web and hold on to their readers. But the advertising revenue is dramatically less than it was for the print version. (Many advertisers have their own economic problems to solve.) Consequently, newsrooms are having to contract — through buyouts, layoffs, combining or closing certain sections and even shutting down the presses altogether. There seems to be a general consensus that the kind of print and photographic journalism supported by large newsrooms and substantial resources is teetering on extinction.”

Even worse, the publications that seem to be thriving in this economic atmosphere, have nothing to do with investigative journalism or memorable imagery. The New York Times has a greattracker for comparing the difference in advertising revenues for major publications during the past 3 years. Interestingly (and rather disturbingly), most tabloid publications recorded significant increases in revenue, like inTouch, who increased advertising by 68% from 2005 to 2008. In contrast, magazines like Newsweek, Businessweek, New Yorker and Time took big hits in ad sales. But the big winner? TV Guide, whose ad sales increased in volume by a whopping 458% over the same three-year period. Americans love their televisions.

Many print publications have been able to stay afloat, just barely, by developing robust online content. So far, it has been nearly impossible to gain the same level of advertising revenue from online publications as from print editions. But the idea of bolstering missing advertising revenue by charging readers to view content online doesn’t seem a likely scenario. Experts agree that consumers simply won’t pay for news content online. People want their news for free. Period. And the internet is more than willing to oblige; with blogs, free news sites and even syndicated news sites, consumers have all the news they need at their fingertips.Despite the floundering newspapers, ironically, the demand for news has never been higher. Web traffic to newspaper websites was up 12% in 2008. MSNBC saw 45 million unique visitors in January 2009. People seem to reconize the value of quality newsgathering, but are unwilling to pay to access it. Smart newspaper publishers should recognize that the end of print news is near, and should invest time and money in developing their online presence to shift to an online advertising-only revenue model. If they accomplish that, they might be able to survive.
As for consumer magazines, the weaker ones are rapidly being culled. But these special-interest publications are much more resilient than their newsprint brethren. Why? Two reasons. First, because they generally carve out a specific niche for themselves, instead of covering a wide array of subjects relevant to the general public. In contrast, every newspaper in the country covers the same major national news stories,  giving newspapers a massive redundancy factor. The second advantage of magazines is that while they may publish time-sensitive information, the shelf life of that information is much longer than the average news story. Newspapers can’t compete with constant online updates – by the time a printed paper hits the newsstands, it is already 6 hours old (eons in news-time).

The morals of this evolving obituary? What does print media need to do to survive? My advice:

1. Develop a dynamic and interactive web presence. The Internet is not going away. It is here to stay, and it will bury print media inthe near future. For publications to survive, they must embrace web content, not fight it.
2. Carve out a niche. Even newspapers can capitalize on niche reporting. Downsize your print edition and localize. The one thing that the consumer cannot find easily online is in-depth local news. Leave the redundant national news stories to the big guys, and focus on developing hard-hitting stories within the community. They’re out there – go find them.
3. Increase your shelf life. Focus on stories that are relevant for days or weeks or even months after you report on them.

As for me… I’m going to cross my fingers that magazines and newspapers can and will survive in one form or another. After all, they write my paychecks.

First of all, CMYK is composed of four plates, or process colors. Cyan (C), Magenta (M), Yellow (Y), and Black (K). Standard process black is 100%K, or 0/0/0/100. Visually, 100% Black is a kind of washed-out black, not a deep black like we can obtain through rich black. Rich black combines ink from all four plates to produce a dark, super-saturated black. An example is below, which uses 70/82/90/100.

Rich blacks can be very useful when looking to obtain a deep, dark black over a large field of solid color. However, be aware that utilizing rich blacks can have two negative effects:

1. Super-saturation. Depending on your medium, this can be a real problem. If you are designing for newsprint, using inks in excess of 240% can cause the ink to soak through the page and obscure content on the other side. In the above example of rich black, we would be using ink percentages of 342%. Check with your printer to see what their maximum ink limit is for the medium you are using. You can check overprints in Adobe Acrobats “Output Previewer” option (more on that later).

2. Registration problems. This is the most common dilemma caused by rich blacks. Sometimes the registration, or alignment of the different color plates will be just a fraction misaligned. This is normal, especially for newspaper printing. However, when utilizing all four plates to create black, especially text or knock-out text, the margin for error is minimal and misaligned plates can cause illegible text.

Below is an example of using 100%K text compared to rich black text:

And here is an example of knockout white space in a field of 100%K as compared to a field of rich black:

As you can see, rich blacks should not be used on black fields with knockouts, or on text under 48 pt. Using these general guidelines will hopefully help you avoid ugly or illegible text.

So what happens when you receive camera-ready artwork that needs to be converted to CMYK from RGB?

This can be a frustrating process. But it’s really quite simple. When converting an image file or PDF to CMYK in Photoshop, it generally defaults to CMYK profile US Web Coated (SWOP) v2. However, as illustrated below in the channels window for our camera-ready ad, this profile creates blacks built with color in all four channels. No bueno.

The key is creating a custom CMYK conversion profile that limits the black ink to 100%, and generates the maximum amount of K for blacks. To do this, we will go to Edit>Color Settings…>CMYK dropdown menu>Custom CMYK…

This produces the following screen:

Here we will select GCR, Black Ink Generation = Maximum, and Black Ink Limit = 100%. Click OK. This will save your custom CMYK profile. Exit the Color Settings window and return to your RGB image waiting to be converted. Now we will convert to CMYK by selecting Image>Mode>CMYK like we always do. But this time it will load the custom profile you just made, and presto! Look in your channels window and you will see that ll the black is in the black channel.

Also note that an easy way to check for built/rich blacks in a camera-ready PDF is to utilize Adobe’ Output Previewer. In Acrobat Professional, go to Advanced>Print Production>Output Previewer. Not only will this break down the ink builds when you hover the mouse over colors on the page, but it will highlight rich blacks and overprints for you. This is a very useful tool when preflighting your print files.

I hope this brief tutorial is helpful. If you have any questions, feel free to ask!

As I was listening to NPR the other day, they broadcast a story on biomimicry. The idea of biomimicry is to derive inspiration and solutions from nature for sustainable innovation. Essentially, when faced with a dilemma, we ask, “What would nature do?” For example, when faced with the dilemma of liquid storage, nature provides us with myriad solutions, ranging from the snail to the banana to lettuce. Lettuce is 98% water, but when punctured, the leaf does not leak. Imagine if we could produce packaging that, instead of employing the traditional method of thicker leakage barriers (and thus excess materials), could utilize the structural matrix of the lettuce leaf to render the vessel leak-proof?

Or, more pertinent to this blog, let’s examine nature’s construction of vibrant color in the peacock. All the colors of the peacock are actually comprised of just one brown pigment, melanin. The secret to those vibrant hues lies in the microstructure of the feather. This allows light to bounce off of the structure in a way that produces vivid blues and purples and greens. What’s more, this is done without dyes, is 100% permanent, safe, and edible! Imagine if we could create packaging for food on this model, so that you could eat the packaging along with the food! Or, imagine if magazines were printed in a manner that never required recycling to return to nature?

The introduction to this radio broadcast mentioned that the narrator met Janine Benyus (founder of the Biomimicry Institute, a collaboration between biologists and innovators) at a national graphic design conference. My ears immediately perked up. Though the story focused primarily on packaging/product design and structural design, I wondered how this concept can be applied to my trade. How can graphic designers employ biomimicry? The answer is twofold:

Concept:

Inspiration is all around us. Nature provides us with endless combinations of shapes and colors and textures. It is possible to incorporate these basic yet elegant images into our design, without being pigeon-holed hippie artists. The vision for biomimicry in graphic design is to subliminally promote respect for the natural world by incorporating nature into visual design.

This is not a new phenomenon and has been utilized for decades, again for myriad motives. Combined with color theory, abstract symbolism is used by corporations to portray a very deliberate image to the marketplace. A prime example comes from the marketing genius of multinational petroleum giant BP. BP, through the use of color and shape, managed to both subliminally portray itself as sustainable (yeah, right) with the liberal use of the color green, and to incorporate the sacred lotus blossom into its image. Though my sensibilities are offended by this double blasphemy, I must admit it is marketing genius. Below:

the sacred lotus flower

BP logo

So how can we use our powers for good? How can we incorporate natural art into human art, when often the recipient is unrelated to eco-industry? I know my own clients range from NPOs to publications to software companies, and biomimicry presents a unique challenge in design for these clients when their marketing strategies are not focused on being “green”. Below is a wonderful example, including a portion of a social service industry ad and its biomimicry inspiration:

print ad

Here the designer drew visual inspiration from the skeleton of a leaf, and the imagery was made all the more potent by the green element containing the main text of the ad. This accomplishes the concept of biomimicry without converting the subject into something it is not. We can all strive to take our cues from the natural world. Take note of color and shape next time you are in your backyard or even walking to the mailbox. How does nature construct itself visually? Art should, after all, represent life… even if abstractly.

Execution:

photo of a leaf skeleton

This element of biomicry is, for the graphic designer, much much harder. How can we find natural structure for the packaging or print materials we design for? Applying the idea of biomimicry to the end products of graphic design poses an intimidating challenge to those of us who are not inventors or structural designers. We feel we are limited by the product resources we are presented by our vendors. And perhaps we are. So must we then settle for “green” instead of biomimicry? Perhaps. And perhaps this is better than nothing?

An easy thing to do: When calling around for print bids, take bids not only on price but on availability of recycled materials or low-impact print processing. Present these options to your client. You’ll be amazed how often they will opt for the “greener” alternative.

And maybe, just maybe, by applying the concept of biomimicry to our visual design, the ideas will trickle down through the layered soil of the design industry and permeate the very roots, thestructure of graphic design. Perhaps if we insist on incorporating nature into the imagery, the innovations of the execution phase will follow.

So pay attention. Inspiration is everywhere, and you needn’t look further than your biological surroundings. Nature wrote the book on art, and perhaps it is time that we give it proper annotation in our bibliography of design.

Want to learn more?

WEBSITES

Biomimicry Institute

Package Design Magazine on biomimicry in package design

biomimicrynews.com

Biomimicry Guild

READING

Benyus, M. Janine. Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature

Gatter, Mark. Getting it Right in Print: Digital Prepress for Graphic Designers (some relevant chapters discuss environmentally-friendly inks and materials)

Papanek, Victor. Design for the Real World: Human Ecology and Social Change

EDUCATION

California College of the Arts
The College offers a course entitled “Applied Biology for Designers and Artists”. The goal of the course is to introduce students to the basic concepts of biology and relate these concepts directly to design and artistic work using the field of biomimicry.
Minneapolis College of Arts and Design
Offers an on-line course called “Biomimicry for Designers” taught by Dayna Baumeister of The Biomimicry Guild.